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China, 907-1125. Finely cast seated in dhyanasana, the hands held in dharmachakra mudra, clad in a loose-fitting monastic robe with richly carved folds, the serene face with downcast eyes, centered above by an urna, the lips forming a gentle smile, flanked by elongated earlobes, the hair arranged in tight curls over the ushnisha centered by a semicircular ornament.
Provenance: A noted dealer who operates in the United Kingdom and international trade. A private collection, United Kingdom, acquired from the above.
Condition: Very good condition with expected ancient wear, casting irregularities, rubbing and minor losses to gilt, a small loss to the lower rim. Overall with an exceptionally fine, naturally grown patina.
Weight: 554 g
Dimensions: Height 14.8 cm
Alloy Composition and Metallurgical Analysis:
Surface XRF analysis detected copper, tin, and lead beneath a gold-and-mercury surface layer. Since the measurement was taken through the gilding, the recorded values—Cu circa 62.0%, Sn 1.5%, Pb 2.2%, Au 22.6%, Hg 11.5%, and Fe 0.2%—do not directly represent the bulk alloy. When the gold and mercury are excluded and the remaining metallic constituents proportionally normalized, they indicate an approximate substrate composition of Cu 94.1%, Sn 2.3%, Pb 3.3%, and Fe 0.3%, corresponding to a low-tin, lightly leaded bronze.
The high copper content afforded ductility and facilitated the precise finishing of the surface, while the addition of lead improved the fluidity of the molten metal during casting. The virtual absence of zinc, recorded at below 0.1%, is compatible with an early, pre-Ming alloy and distinguishes it from the brass compositions increasingly employed in later periods. A major technical study of 107 Chinese copper-alloy sculptures found leaded tin bronze characteristic of Buddhist images from the Northern Wei through the Song dynasty, while zinc became increasingly prominent from the Ming onward; see Paul J. Jett and Janet G. Douglas, “Chinese Buddhist Bronzes in the Freer Gallery of Art: Physical Features and Elemental Composition,” in Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings, vol. 267, 1992, p. 205-223. The substantial presence of gold and residual mercury confirms the use of traditional mercury-amalgam gilding.
No arsenic was detected above the analytical limit. This is significant, as Dali bronzes typically contain arsenic, reflecting the naturally arsenic-bearing copper ores historically exploited in Yunnan. The present alloy therefore differs markedly from the metallurgical tradition associated with Dali sculpture. Instead, its leaded tin-bronze composition is characteristic of northern Chinese casting traditions. It strongly indicates that the copper originated from northern China, within the wider Liao sphere.
As inheritors of Tang-dynasty sculptural traditions, the contemporaneous Liao and Dali kingdoms both accorded Buddhism an important place in courtly and religious life. Although geographically distant and not known to have maintained sustained direct relations, they belonged to a wider sphere of cultural exchange: Dali enjoyed cordial diplomatic and commercial relations with the Song, while the Song maintained extensive contact with Liao. Religious texts, luxury goods, craftsmen, and artistic models did therefore circulate between northern and southwestern China, creating a complex interplay among the Buddhist arts of Song, Liao, and Dali. Their common reliance on Tang prototypes further accounts for the close stylistic relationship between their sculptures and explains why rare Dali bronzes were long attributed to Liao workshops.
The present Buddha not only stands as a notable testament to the cultural exchange between the Liao and Dali Kingdoms, it is in fact particularly close to a small group of Dali images of Amitabha.
Characteristic features include the head, large in proportion to the shoulders; the broad, low-domed ushnisha embellished at the front with a gilded demi-florette; and the elongated almond-shaped eyes, which, though contemplatively lowered, appear more open than the heavily lidded eyes of many Tang and Liao figures. Equally telling is the edge of the robe, which descends across the body in a gentle curve related to the pronounced S-shaped configuration frequently encountered on Dali bronzes, before folding back upon and partially obscuring the underlying drapery. Here the curve is more restrained, while the weightier modeling and solemn expression retain something of the northern Chinese tradition. The unusual paired hand gestures correspond to those found on Dali representations of Amitabha and refer to the grades of rebirth in the Buddha’s Western Paradise.
Closely related Dali bronzes include a larger gilt-bronze Amitabha dated 12th-13th century at Delon-Hoebanx, Paris, 13 June 2019, lot 176 (fig. 1); gilt-bronze Amitabha sold at Christie’s New York, 20 March 2014, lot 1611 (fig. 2), and the mid-eleventh-century Amitabha in the Cleveland Museum of Art, accession number 1942.1082 (fig. 3). The latter was formerly classified as Liao but is now assigned to Yunnan on account of its relationship to an inscribed Dali bronze in the Shanghai Museum—an instructive example of the difficulty of separating the two traditions.
The metallurgical evidence adds a further dimension to this artistic convergence. Whereas many scientifically examined Dali bronzes were cast in arsenical copper, the present figure is composed of a low-tin, leaded bronze more closely associated with northern Chinese Buddhist casting. This distinction need not preclude manufacture in Yunnan. Metal ingots, recycled bronze, technical knowledge, and even craftsmen could travel through the same commercial and cultural networks that conveyed Buddhist texts and artistic models. The figure may therefore have been cast in a Yunnan workshop using imported or recycled metal prepared according to a northern Chinese tradition. Although the present surface analysis cannot establish the geological source of the metal, the conjunction of Dali stylistic features with a northern Chinese alloy composition eloquently reflects the interconnected artistic world in which the sculpture was created.
Literature comparison:
Compare a related gilt-bronze figure of Vairocana, dated Liao dynasty, 24.5 cm tall, in the National Museum of Asian Art, Smithsonian Institute, accession number S2006.7. Compare a related Dali gilt bronze figure of Vairocana, dated Five Dynasties period, in the Shanghai Museum.
Auction result comparison:
Type: Closely related
Auction: Christie’s Paris, 6 July 2022, lot 215
Price: EUR 88,200 or approx. EUR 96,500 adjusted for inflation at the time of writing
Description: A bronze figure of Buddha Shakyamuni, China, circa 15th century
Expert remark: Compare the closely related modeling and manner of casting, particularly the treatment of the robe, serene expression, and small ornament at the front of the ushnisha. Note the size (20.2 cm) and the near-total loss of the original surface decoration, with only traces of gold lacquer remaining. The remarkable price realized—more than seven times the upper estimate—may indicate that bidders regarded the figure as appreciably earlier than its catalogued circa fifteenth-century date.
Auction result comparison:
Type: Closely related
Auction: Christie’s Paris, 14 December 2016, lot 56
Price: EUR 482,500 or approx. EUR 592,000 adjusted for inflation at the time of writing
Description: An important gilt-bronze figure of Buddha Amitabha, China, Dali Kingdom, Yunnan Province, 12th-13th century
Expert remark: Compare the closely related modeling, manner of casting, and gilding, with similar robe, hairstyle, and expression. Note the larger size (28 cm).
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